Measures targeting women fail to gain traction because of societal pressure to bear children, and because access to education, employment, and political participation remain unsafe given rampant sexual violence in public spaces. There is acknowledgement among policymakers that population growth is stifling infrastructure and development, yet there is little incentive for change. On the other hand, urbanisation has remained stagnant due to the crackdown on booming illegal, albeit urgently needed, housing. Infrastructure development is on a split course: On one hand, because of its resources and manpower, the military can invest in mega-projects in hopes of long-term economic benefits. Simultaneously, socio-economic grievances and its importance as an employer continue to push the military into Egypt’s domestic politics. The military is historically tied to politics and remains a highly popular institution in Egyptian society.

With the tenth anniversary of the Arab Spring uprising approaching, it has become clear that civil–military relations, infrastructure development, and population growth remain three interrelated challenges for Egypt that have persisted throughout the last decade. Abdel Fattah el-Sisi came to power after the military ousted President Morsi in July 2013 following widespread protests and strikes.

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